The Founding of Rome: Myth, History, and the Construction of Identity

Introduction Ancient Rome stands as one of history's most influential civilizations, not only for its military might, legal system, and architecture but also for its distinctive origin narrative. The accounts of Rome's founding represent far more than the physical construction of a city; these stories serve as powerful tools revealing how the Romans defined themselves, the framework through which they made sense of their past, and the foundations upon which they based their political legitimacy. According to the traditional narrative, Rome was founded by Romulus, a descendant of the Trojan Aeneas, on April 21, 753 BCE. However, this myth is not a single, unified account but rather a complex construct shaped over centuries, reinterpreted according to different political needs, and not always aligned with archaeological evidence. This article will examine the myth of Rome's founding along three main axes: the myth's historical development and political function, the archaeological evidence's approach to this narrative, and the central role of the founding cult in Roman identity.

Chapter One: The Formation of the Founding Myth and Its Political Function Narratives concerning the founding of Rome existed from the city's earliest periods but gained systematic form particularly in the 1st century BCE. During this period, works such as Virgil's epic Aeneid, Livy's historical work Ab Urbe Condita (From the Founding of the City), and Dionysius of Halicarnassus's Roman Antiquities established the main outlines of the foundation narrative. These works present a common framework: after the Trojan War, Aeneas came to Italy via Anatolia and was positioned as the ancestor of the Roman people; the twins Romulus and Remus, descended from him, are presented as the city's founders.

The most striking aspect of this narrative is how it reconciles two different cultural heritages by linking Rome's origin both to the ancient Trojan civilization of the East and to local Italian tradition. While the connection to Troy established through Aeneas granted Rome a sense of nobility and antiquity in the face of the Hellenistic world, the she-wolf legend accompanying the story of Romulus and Remus emphasized Rome's authentic roots in the Italian peninsula.

The intensification of the founding myth in the 1st century BCE was no coincidence. This century was a period when the Roman Republic was shaken by civil wars and ultimately transformed into an empire under Augustus. By presenting himself as a descendant of Iulus, the son of Aeneas, Augustus both appropriated the founding myth of Rome and grounded his own political power in divine lineage. In this context, the founding myth became not merely a narrative of the past but also an instrument of contemporary political legitimacy.

Chapter Two: The Tension Between Archaeological Reality and Myth Although the foundation narrative transmitted by Roman historians appears coherent and detailed, archaeological findings fall far short of confirming this story. Excavations on the Palatine Hill demonstrate that the area was inhabited from the 10th century BCE onward. However, this settlement did not arise as a city constructed on a specific date by a single founder figure, but rather formed through the gradual coalescence of separate villages over time. It is understood that during the 8th century BCE, distinct settlements on hills such as the Palatine, Esquiline, and Quirinal slowly merged into a single urban structure.

Archaeologists also consider the date of 753 BCE to be a symbolic date determined later by the Romans themselves. This date was established through calculations made by Roman chronologists and subsequently became traditional. April 21 coincides with an ancient agricultural festival known in Rome as the Parilia, associated with a ritual for shepherds to purify their flocks. Aligning the founding day with this festival is significant as it demonstrates the symbolic connection established between the city's founding and agricultural fertility and rebirth.

Archaeological evidence also raises serious questions regarding the historicity of the Romulus and Remus story as told in the founding myth. The motif of the twins being suckled by a she-wolf is not unique to Rome but is a widespread mythological theme with similar examples found in Etruscan and Greek cultures. Although it is not known precisely when and under what circumstances this motif was incorporated into the Roman narrative, it is known that this imagery began appearing in Roman art and on coins from the 4th century BCE onward.

Chapter Three: The Founding Cult and Roman Identity Despite archaeological evidence not confirming the myth, the foundation narrative meant far more than historical truth to the Romans. The founding myth stood at the center of Roman identity and religious practices. Reverence for the founding heroes occupied a significant place in the Roman religious calendar. The cult attributed to Romulus continued under the name Quirinus, and the rituals of this cult were meticulously performed by state officials.

The cult of Aeneas was similarly an integral part of Rome's consciousness of its origins. The sanctuary believed to belong to Aeneas, located at Lavinium (present-day Pratica di Mare), was one of Rome's oldest religious centers. Roman consuls were obligated to offer sacrifices at this sanctuary upon assuming office. This practice demonstrates how strong the connection was between Rome's political leadership and the founding myth.

The social function of the founding myth was not limited to the elite. Traditional festivals such as the Lupercalia brought together people from all segments of the city through rituals held at the Lupercal, the cave where Romulus and Remus were said to have been suckled by the she-wolf. These festivals served to foster social cohesion around a common origin.

The Romans' commitment to the founding myth was a matter of identity rather than mere historical knowledge. The virtues attributed to the city's founders—courage, loyalty, piety, and the ability to forgo personal interests for the sake of the state—were accepted as Roman virtues and transmitted from generation to generation. Romulus's killing of his brother Remus remained in the narrative as a disturbing yet instructive element emphasizing that the city's survival took precedence over personal bonds.

Chapter Four: The Construction of Origins as a Universal Tendency The Roman example represents a universal manifestation of the need for great states and leaders throughout history to anchor their origins in the distant past. From Alexander to Caesar, from Ottoman sultans to medieval European dynasties, many rulers have sought to trace their lineage to gods, heroes, or ancient civilizations. Even leaders not of noble birth have employed similar strategies to legitimize their power.

This situation reveals the close relationship between historiography and political legitimacy. History is not merely an impartial record of the past but also a narrative constructed according to the needs of the present. In this sense, the founding myth of Rome is less an objective reflection of the past than a product of the Romans' efforts to make sense of themselves and their place in the world.

Modern historiography and archaeology have taught us to approach such narratives with critical distance. Yet at the same time, they emphasize the importance of understanding the role these narratives play in the memory, identity, and cultural practices of societies. The failure of archaeological evidence to "confirm" a myth does not negate that myth's social function and historical impact. On the contrary, this tension between myth and reality offers the historian important clues about the nature of how societies relate to the past.

The founding of Rome is less a historical event than the product of a millennia-long process of making meaning. This story, extending from the Trojan Aeneas to Romulus, reflects the Romans' efforts to connect themselves both to the ancient heritage of the East and the indigenous traditions of Italy, their quest for political legitimacy, and their need to construct a shared identity. Although archaeological excavations show that the city was not founded by a single founder on a specific date but rather took shape over a long period, these findings did not undermine the central position of the founding myth in Roman culture.

The founding myth was kept alive in every stratum of Roman society through ceremonies, festivals, and cultic practices; it was used as the foundation of political legitimacy; and it played a fundamental role in transmitting Roman virtues from generation to generation. Viewed from this perspective, understanding the founding of Rome means not merely learning how a city emerged in the 8th century BCE, but also grasping how a society constructed itself, how it interpreted its past, and what function this interpretation served over a thousand years.

The Roman example is also significant as a reminder that history is not only "what happened" but also "what is remembered and told." This reminder offers us a key to understanding how the past is used today in processes of nation-building, quests for political legitimacy, and identity politics. The founding myth of Rome endures in history as one of the earliest, most comprehensive, and most influential examples of this universal tendency.